Diseases, medical tests and treatments

What does the pituitary gland do? Because it secretes numerous hormones that control the release of hormones from other glands, the pituitary gland, which is found in the brain, is frequently referred to as the “master gland.” Growth hormone and other hormones that control the thyroid, adrenal, testes, and ovaries are released by it. The pituitary gland’s hormone release is controlled by the hypothalamus, which is situated above it. It controls moods, appetite, sleep-wake cycles, and body temperature. What is the purpose of adrenal glands? The hormones cortisol and aldosterone are produced by the adrenal glands, also referred to as suprarenal glands, which are located above both kidneys. The anterior pituitary gland secretes adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH), which controls the steroid hormone cortisol (also known as glucocorticoids).When cortisol and aldosterone (also known as mineralocorticoids) are not produced in sufficient amounts, adrenal insufficiency results. The hormone cortisol plays a crucial role in assisting the body in coping with stressors like disease, infection, and surgery. Maintaining blood pressure, blood sugar, cardiovascular health, and controlling the metabolism of proteins, carbs, and fats all depend on cortisol. What kinds of pituitary gland disorders can affect children? Children can suffer from a variety of pituitary gland disorders. These consist of: What are the most common pituitary gland disorders? There are multiple commonly occuring pituitary gland disorders. Alongisde Cushing’s syndrome, other pituitary gland disorders are as follows: There are three categories of causes for adrenal insufficiency: primary, secondary, and chronic cortisol exposure. When the adrenal gland is unable to produce enough cortisol or aldosterone, it results in primary adrenal insufficiency, also known as Addison’s disease. This may be the result of an autoimmune disease, tumors, infection, or bleeding into the adrenal glands. Inadequate cortisol levels result from secondary or central adrenal insufficiency, which is caused by the pituitary gland’s failure to produce ACTH, which signals the adrenal gland to produce enough cortisol. Pituitary tumors, infections, or surgery may be the cause of this. Adrenal insufficiency can have primary, secondary, or chromosomal causes. The adrenal glands may become suppressed as a result of frequent and extended exposure to high levels of cortisol, such as when taking steroid medications for cancer, autoimmune diseases, or severe asthma. This will prevent the body from producing enough of its own cortisol hormone. Surgery to remove the adrenal glands because of cancers like neuroblastomas can also result in adrenal insufficiency. What are the signs to recognise for pituitary gland disorders? Signs and symptoms of a pituitary gland disorder often dependo n the specific disorder and hormone that is affected. However, there are some frequently occuring signs and symptoms which include: How are pituitary gland disorders diagnosed? There are numerous tests which can be carried out in order to diagnose pituitary gland disorders. These include: Hormone tests There are multiple hormone tests which can confirm a diagnosis of a pituitary gland disorer including blood, urine or saliva tests. Dynamic tests Dynamic tests  may increase or  suppress the productionoof certain hormones in order to test how the body responds to this. Dynamic tests include: Imaging Scans such as MRIs can be used in order to diagnose pituitary tumors. There are various MRI scans which can be used including rapid dynamic gadolinium-enhanced pituitary imaging, intraoperative MRI and open MRI. Neuropathological tests Some neuropathological tests performed in order to diagnose pituitary gland disorders include molecular pathology, cytogenetics and ultrastructural analysis. How are pituitary gland disorders treated? Medication and hormone replacement therapy are two ways to treat pituitary gland disorders. Radiation therapy or surgery may be necessary in certain situations to treat these conditions.

What is vitamin D deficiency? A vitamin D deficiency occurs when the body does not have enough of the vitamin, which is necessary for healthy bones and teeth. One billion people worldwide are thought to have low vitamin D levels. When our skin is exposed to sunlight, the body produces vitamin D, which is naturally present in some foods like fish liver oil, egg yolks, and fortified dairy and cereals. A deficiency is more likely to occur in people who are vegan, have milk allergies, or don’t get enough sun. What are the symptoms? Because the symptoms of vitamin D deficiency can be so subtle, most people are unaware of it. Here are a few typical indicators: Numerous health risks, including an increased risk of cardiovascular disease and cognitive impairment in older adults, can result from low vitamin D levels. How is vitamin D deficiency diagnosed? The 25-hydroxyvitamin D blood test is the most precise method of determining your body’s vitamin D levels. Low levels of vitamin D are indicated by a level of less than 20 nanograms/ml. What causes vitamin D deficiency? There are several causes of vitamin D deficiency, including: How is it treated? Increasing your vitamin D intake through diet and supplements is the treatment for vitamin D deficiency. For individuals aged one to seventy, the recommended daily allowance is 600 IU, and for those over seventy, it is 800 IU. How can it be prevented? You can lower your risk of vitamin D deficiency by:

What is gestational diabetes? Women may occasionally experience elevated blood sugar levels during pregnancy, but these usually go away after giving birth.Although it can develop at any stage of pregnancy, gestational diabetes usually manifests in the second half of the pregnancy. This condition will be diagnosed and treated with the assistance of a specialist consultant obstetrician or endocrinologist. What is the prognosis of gestational diabetes? The health of the mother and the unborn child may be impacted by gestational diabetes, which typically goes away after giving birth. The likelihood of issues developing is decreased if it is identified early and treated. Furthermore, having gestational diabetes raises your chance of getting type 2 diabetes later in life. This illness raises the possibility of: Symptoms of gestational diabetes Often there are no symptoms related to gestational diabetes, however, some women may experience the following if their blood sugar levels become too high (hyperglycaemia): Unfortunately, many of these symptoms are also typical of pregnancy itself. Medical tests to diagnose gestational diabetes An evaluation will be conducted to determine the risk of developing gestational diabetes during the first prenatal visit (8–12 weeks of pregnancy) if your BMI is higher than 30, if diabetes runs in your family, if you have experienced gestational diabetes during a previous pregnancy, or if you are Asian, Middle Eastern, or African-Caribbean. In the 24th to 28th week of pregnancy, you will also undergo an oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT), which involves taking a blood sample both before and after consuming a glucose drink. What are the causes of gestational diabetes? Although the precise cause of gestational diabetes is still unknown, hormones are most likely to play a role. Human placental lactogen (hPL) and hormones that raise insulin resistance are released in greater quantities during pregnancy. Although these hormones protect your pregnancy, they can also cause insulin resistance, which raises blood sugar levels if it gets too strong. Can gestational diabetes be prevented? Whilst there is no guarantee in preventing gestational diabetes, you can decrease your risk by: Treatments for gestational diabetes You will be instructed to use a testing kit to check your blood sugar levels both before and after meals if you are diagnosed with gestational diabetes. Additionally, dietary recommendations regarding foods that can help control blood sugar levels will be given to you. However, some women will also need insulin injections to regulate their blood sugar levels. In order to reduce the possibility of complications, women with this condition will also be closely monitored during their pregnancy. Which type of specialist treats gestational diabetes? Obstetricians, gynecologists, and endocrinologists would treat gestational diabetes.

What is diabetic foot? Diabetes can have a variety of effects on the feet, and diabetic foot is defined as the manifestation of symptoms in the foot that are related to diabetes or its complications. This can involve a variety of issues, including infections and ulcers. What are the symptoms? Common side effects include leg ulcers, infections, and sores. Sepsis can result in foot amputation in extreme circumstances. For people with diabetes, conditions like athlete’s foot, calluses, fungal nail infections, corns, blisters, bunions, dry skin, and ingrown toenails can be more problematic. Blisters and other foot injuries usually take a long time to heal, and people with diabetes should get help right away if they have ulcers, breaks in their skin, discharge from a wound, or changes in the color of their skin. What causes or what produces diabetic foot? Over time, high blood sugar can damage blood vessels and nerves, resulting in neuropathy, or loss of feeling in the feet. This can also hinder the body’s ability to heal because of decreased blood flow. Ulcers and infections may result from the foot’s damage going unnoticed and taking longer to heal. How can diabetic foot be prevented? For diabetics, it is firstly very important to try and keep blood sugar levels under control to prevent damage to the nerves and blood vessels. As normal foot problems are more problematic, it is recommended that: In addition, people at high risk of getting ulcers may undergo screening. Good patient education can also help prevent problems. It is also recommended that the patient stops smoking as this also worsens circulation. Therapeutic shoes can also help to protect the feet. What is the treatment of diabetic foot? The type of foot issue being treated and the unique circumstances will determine the exact course of treatment. When diabetic foot ulcers are present, it’s critical to keep them from getting worse and to keep them from getting infected. Reducing pressure on the feet as much as possible promotes healing and helps stop the ulcer from getting worse.You can also use compression wraps, diabetic shoes, shoe inserts, etc. The ulcer must be treated right away if it is infected. Depending on the kind and extent of the infection, the course of treatment may involve topical therapies or prescription drugs like antibiotics. In more serious situations, surgery might be required. In the event of potentially fatal infections, this may involve amputation or the removal of foot abnormalities. What specialists treat diabetic foot? Depending on the severity of the condition, diabetic foot treatment frequently calls for a multidisciplinary team approach. Thus, a general practitioner, endocrinologist, vascular surgeon, internal medicine specialist, surgeon, and physical therapist can all treat diabetic foot.

What is an insulin pump? People with type 1 or type 2 diabetes can receive fast-acting insulin treatment around-the-clock with an insulin pump, a mechanical and electrical device. The way the device functions is by continuously releasing a specific amount of insulin subcutaneously, or beneath the skin. It is portable and compact. What is an insulin pump for? Insulin pumps are prescribed to people who need constant insulin administration, offering a great help for those who have to live with diabetes. It can ensure a much-improved quality of life, as a result of properly managed diabetes. How does an insulin pump work? The insulin pump is as big as a small mobile phone. It is equipped with a processing module, linked to the insulin reservoir. The pump is placed on the abdominal area or on the buttocks; it is linked to the subcutaneous tissue with a small cannula. It then releases a minimal and continuous amount of insulin (as close as possible to your real needs), with variable speed during the different phases of the day. During the night, different amounts of insulin are released as you are asleep and not eating meals. If you eat, you can press a button on the pump to give an additional boost of insulin – this is called a bolus and can meet the needs to eating a larger meal than average, for example. You can also take a bolus if your blood glucose levels are high. How can I ensure that an insulin pump is effective? Having an insulin pump, however, does still require frequent measurement of your blood glucose levels. The following criteria are generally recommended for ideal insulin pump candidates: Are there disadvantages of having an insulin pump? There are some points to consider when using an insulin pump to treat your diabetes. These include: Getting used to the device Things like changing infusion sets, which can be a longer process than taking a single injection, setting basal rates and avoiding issues such as bubbles take some time to figure out. Frequent blood glucose testing As mentioned above, frequent blood glucose testing of at least 4 times a day is still required if you have an insulin pump. Diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA) risk Problems like getting air in the tubing, or having a blocked cannula, can develop. This means you may not get enough insulin, and this could lead to ketone rising. In turn, this could lead to an increased risk of ketoacidosis.  Skin infections There is a risk of skin infections occurring because insulin pumps involve having a catheter implanted under the skin for a number of days. Thankfully, they should be rare as long as correct procedures are followed.  Catching the tubing on objects This can be an issue especially if longer lengths of tubing are used. It’s potentially painful and can leave the infusion site sore for some time.  

What is Cushing’s syndrome? Cushing’s syndrome is a rare, progressive disease that occurs due to chronic and excessive production of the hormone cortisol. Cortisol is naturally synthesised (produced) in the human body by the adrenal glands and helps with regulating blood pressure, converting food into energy, controlling the immune system’s inflammatory response and handling stress. If left untreated, Cushing’s syndrome can cause problems. How are cortisol levels normally controlled? The hypothalamus, pituitary, and adrenal glands regulate the production of cortisol.The hypothalamus releases corticotrophin-releasing hormone (CRH) into the blood when cortisol levels are low. This causes the pituitary gland to release adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH), another hormone. After being released, ACTH is transported to the adrenal glands, where it causes the glands to produce cortisol. When the body’s cortisol levels reach their maximum level for optimal bodily function, the release of CRH and ACTH is inhibited. Usually, this peak happens early in the morning. Following this, a drop in ACTH will result in a drop in cortisol levels. Throughout the day, cortisol levels will fluctuate, but the hypothalamus, pituitary, and adrenal glands’ normal functions will maintain cortisol levels within a specific range that is never too high or too low. What are the symptoms of Cushing’s syndrome? The disease presents either over time or suddenly. The most important change is weight gain and increased body fatty tissue, caused by a redistribution and accumulated deposition of fat. This may appear as: Other symptoms of Cushing’s syndrome include: How is Cushing’s syndrome diagnosed? Cushing’s syndrome can be challenging to diagnose, especially if you haven’t been taking steroids. This is due to the fact that Cushing’s syndrome symptoms can mimic those of other illnesses, including eating disorders, depression, and polycystic ovary syndrome. This may cause a diagnosis to be delayed by years. Following a physical examination, if Cushing’s syndrome is suspected, a blood, urine, and saliva test, an inferior petrosal sinus sampling (a diagnostic procedure that samples the petrosal sinus veins to test for ACTH), and imaging tests like an MRI or CT scan will be used to measure the cortisol level in your body. What are the causes of Cushing’s syndrome? The main cause of Cushing’s syndrome is an overproduction of the hormone cortisol. This commonly results from the use of corticosteroid medications over a long period of time (they contain an artificial version of cortisol in them), but it can also result from: Cushing’s syndrome usually develops in adults aged 20 to 50, with women being three times more likely to be affected. Is Cushing’s syndrome genetic? Rarely, an inherited tendency to develop small tumors on the adrenal glands can cause Cushing’s syndrome by affecting cortisol levels. Can Cushing’s syndrome be prevented? The only way to prevent Cushing’s syndrome caused by corticosteroid medication is to avoid taking this type of medication, if possible. Treatments for Cushing’s syndrome The goal of Cushing’s syndrome treatment is to regulate and restore normal cortisol levels in the patient’s body.This can be accomplished by reducing the dosage of some drugs, but if the cause is a tumor, for instance, treatment will require medication, surgery, chemotherapy, or radiation therapy. A surgeon’s goal when performing surgery is to remove the tumor entirely. Most patients will experience adrenal insufficiency following surgery, which will temporarily impair their ability to produce cortisol. To give your body the right amount of cortisol, you will then need to take cortisol replacement drugs. Your body will eventually resume producing enough cortisol hormones through the adrenal glands. But the entire procedure could take up to year or longer. For patients who are unable to have surgery or whose tumor was not entirely removed during surgery, radiotherapy is advised. To eradicate the tumor, radiation can be given in small doses over the course of six weeks or in a single, high dose of radiation known as stereotactic radiotherapy. If a tumor is malignant or has spread to other parts of the body, chemotherapy may be recommended. If surgery, radiotherapy, and chemotherapy are unsuccessful, medications may be used to reduce and control the body’s cortisol levels. They can also be used before surgery to reduce surgical risk and treat severe symptoms of Cushing’s syndrome. However, not all of the symptoms of excess cortisol may be alleviated by medication. Your doctor might suggest having your adrenal glands surgically removed (a procedure known as a bilateral adrenalectomy) if none of these treatments are successful. This last procedure will address the excess cortisol production, but it will necessitate lifelong replacement medication. What is the prognosis of Cushing’s syndrome? If treatment targets the disease’s underlying cause, the majority of symptoms will typically go away or noticeably improve within a year. In 25% of cases, however, Cushing’s syndrome will recur (for instance, if a tumor recurs). In these situations, additional care will be required. Which specialist treats Cushing’s syndrome? Cushing’s syndrome is usually treated by endocrinologists. What can I eat and drink with Cushing’s syndrome? If you have Cushing’s syndrome, small lifestyle changes can help you to manage and prevent the progression of symptoms, including: What is the difference between Cushing’s syndrome and Cushing disease? Both conditions are brought on by high cortisol levels in the body, but Cushing’s disease is a type of Cushing’s syndrome that happens when the pituitary gland produces too much ACTH due to a pituitary adenoma, which is a benign tumor. The adrenal glands are then stimulated to produce too much cortisol when the body has too much ACTH. The only cause of Cushing disease is a tumor or growth in the pituitary gland, as opposed to Cushing’s syndrome, which can occur for a number of reasons.

What is hirsutism? Excessive hair growth in women, known as hirsutism, occurs in places where men typically have hair, like the neck, chest, stomach, lower back, buttocks, thighs, and face (upper lip, chin, and sideburns). Living with the situation is upsetting and embarrassing for some women. Hyperandrogenemia, or an excess of male hormones (androgens) in a woman’s body, is the cause of hyperandrogenism.Although in much smaller quantities, testosterone, the primary androgen hormone that causes men to develop secondary sexual traits, can also be produced in a female body. The ovaries and adrenal glands produce very small amounts of androstenedione and DHEA-S, two additional androgen hormones. One of the primary clinical indicators of hyperandrogenism is hirsutism, which may also include oily skin, acne, deepening of the voice, and irregular or absent periods.    What are the causes of hirsutism? An excess of male hormones (testosterone, androstenedione, and DHEA-S) in a woman’s body results in hirsutism. Other hyperandrogenism symptoms like acne, deep voice, loss of scalp hair, and clitoris enlargement may accompany it. Polycystic ovarian syndrome (PCOS), which frequently results in irregular and/or absent periods, is the most common cause of hirsutism. Idiopathic hirsutism is a type of hirsutism that can also be genetic and run in families.Women from the Middle East, South Asia, and the Mediterranean are more likely to have it. Other reasons could be: ​ What is the treatment for hirsutism? The main treatments include: ​The best results in the control of hirsutism are achieved with the combination of medical treatment and concurrent mechanical removal of unwanted hairs. The process of achieving reasonable good control is very slow and takes years. What are the home hair removal techniques? As home hair removal techniques are inexpensive, they will need to be carried out on a regular basis. The main ones are:

What is insulin resistance? The pancreas produces the hormone insulin. Because it helps the body’s cells absorb glucose from the blood and lowers glucose production in the liver, it is released into the bloodstream when blood glucose levels rise after eating, preventing blood sugar levels from rising too high. Insulin resistance occurs when muscle, fat, and liver cells do not react appropriately to insulin, which impairs their capacity to absorb blood glucose. To get the desired result, a higher insulin concentration will be required. Insulin resistance and prediabetes are typically diagnosed and treated by medical professionals with expertise in endocrinology, diabetes, and metabolism. Prognosis of insulin resistance Insulin resistance typically causes the body to produce more insulin to compensate – a condition known as hyperinsulinaemia. Moreover, it is a driving factor behind the development of type 2 diabetes, prediabetes and gestational diabetes. Symptoms of insulin resistance There are usually no symptoms of insulin resistance when the condition first develops; symptoms manifest later as a knock-on effect of high blood glucose levels, including: Medical tests to diagnose insulin resistance A blood test for elevated insulin levels can be used to diagnose insulin resistance. However, because some of the most effective tests, like the euglycemic clamp, are too costly and complex to perform in a doctor’s office, doctors hardly ever perform tests expressly for insulin resistance. Since prediabetes rarely develops without insulin resistance, it is most frequently identified during blood tests for the condition. What are the causes of insulin resistance? The causes of insulin resistance are not completely understood, but several risk factors that could contribute to its development have been identified: Treatments for insulin resistance To manage insulin resistance and even reverse it in some cases, you can make straightforward lifestyle changes: Diet adjustments: Consider low-carb, low-calorie, or ketogenic diets. These help regulate blood sugar levels by reducing the need for your body to produce too much insulin. Regular physical activity: Start with a simple 30-minute daily walk. This can improve how your body responds to insulin. You can also increase your exercise levels by going to the gym or participating in physical activities you enjoy. Weight control: Maintaining a healthy weight is crucial. Losing excess weight, especially around your belly, can make your body more sensitive to insulin.   Medical options: In some cases, like severe obesity, weight loss surgery might be an option. These surgeries not only help with weight loss but can also improve how your body uses insulin, leading to better blood sugar control. Remember, it’s important to consult with a healthcare professional or dietitian to create a plan tailored to your specific needs when addressing insulin resistance.

What is hypopituitarism? A condition known as hypopituitarism occurs when the pituitary gland does not produce enough of a particular hormone. The hypothalamus is linked to the pituitary gland, which is situated beneath the brain. It is in charge of making several hormones, such as growth hormone (GH) and thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH). Endocrinologists treat hypopituitarism. Prognosis: Treatment for this illness must be ongoing. However, if they are properly managing their condition, patients can lead normal lives. Symptoms of hypopituitarism In most cases, the symptoms develop gradually, hence they may not be noticed for a while. Moreover, the symptoms depend on which hormones are lacking. The most common symptoms include:   How is hypopituitarism diagnosed? A physical examination of the thyroid gland, sex organs, and eyes is part of the testing process for hypopituitarism in order to identify symptoms of the condition and indications of hormone deficiency. To ascertain the amount of hormones in the blood, blood tests might also be necessary. To ascertain whether specific hormones, primarily growth hormone or cortisol, are lacking, a stimulation test may occasionally be performed. Urine testing may also be performed because it may reveal an antidiuretic hormone deficiency. What are the causes of hypopituitarism? Some of the possible causes are as follows:   Can it be prevented? This disease cannot be prevented. However, early diagnosis may help in managing it correctly and reducing the number of symptoms experienced. Treatments for hypopituitarism There are different types of treatment, including:   Medications for hypopituitarism The following drugs may be prescribed for a hormone deficiency:

What are adrenal gland disorders? A class of illnesses known as adrenal gland disorders affects the endocrine glands that sit above the kidneys, the adrenal glands. Numerous hormones, including corticosteroids, steroid hormones like androgens, and adrenaline, are produced by these glands. These hormones aid in blood pressure regulation, fat burning, blood sugar regulation, and the body’s response to stress (such as injury or illness). Therefore, an endocrine condition may arise from dysfunction of the adrenal glands. Adrenal gland disorders come in different forms, including What causes adrenal gland disorders? Adrenal gland disorders may occur for several reasons. In many disorders, hormone production is either too little or too high, causing an insufficiency or an abnormal abundance. Adrenal gland disorders can be a result of the following: What are the symptoms? As there are various types of adrenal gland disorders, symptoms will vary depending on the condition. Cushing’s Syndrome Addison’s Disease Congential adrenal hyperplasia symptoms can be mild or more serious, and symptoms may even be so mild that they do not cause the individual problems. Symptoms of mild CAH Symptoms of more serious or severe CAH Pheochromocytoma symptoms include Are adrenal tumours common? Adrenal tumours are quite common. 2-3% of adults experience adrenal tumours in their life. There are certain hormones that are dangerous if overproduced by the tumour. These hormones are aldosterone, cortisol and catecholamines (also known as epinephrine and norepinephrine; adrenaline) and sex-steroid hormones (androgens and estrogens). If the tumour produces too many of these hormones, then it is referred to as ´fuctional´, due to its overfunctioning nature; it is producing too many hormones. Functioning adrenal tumours must be removed because excess of these hormones is considered to be toxic and causes damage to the body. Some tumours do not produce hormones, but damage the pituitary and do not allow it to secrete the right level of hormones. As a result, the adrenal glands will not function as they should. How are adrenal gland disorders diagnosed? There are various ways in which adrenal gland disorders can be diagnosed. Some tests which doctors may use to test hormone levels are: Doctors may also look for tumours via: What is the treatment? Treatment depends on the adrenal gland disorder affecting the individual, but generally treatment will be surgical or medical. Treatments include: Can you live without adrenal glands? It is possible to survive without adrenal glands. Because they release too many or too few hormones, which indicates that they aren’t functioning properly, adrenal glands may need to be removed. An adrenalectomy is the process of removing the adrenal glands. Typically, only one adrenal gland is surgically removed; the function of the removed adrenal gland is replaced by the other. Hormone replacement therapy might be required temporarily until the other adrenal gland starts to function normally again if one of the glands was removed because of an excess of one hormone. But occasionally, both glands are removed. Hormone replacement therapy is necessary for the remainder of your life if this is the case. The reason the adrenal glands were removed determines how you feel following an adrenalectomy. It is safe to swiftly resume a regular diet and level of activity. Light exercise, like walking, is advised to speed up the healing process. It typically takes two to four weeks to recover from an adrenalectomy.