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What is the parathyroid gland? The thyroid gland is often connected to the four parathyroid glands in the neck. They regulate blood calcium levels, which are crucial for a variety of bodily processes. The most frequent issue with parathyroid glands is primary hyperparathyroidism, which is an overactive gland brought on by a benign tumor. More than 90% of the time, just one gland is affected. The goal of parathyroid gland surgery is to identify the diseased parathyroid gland, either by neck exploration during surgery or by imaging prior to surgery. A targeted, minimally invasive method of removing the abnormal gland can be used if imaging reveals the abnormal gland or glands before surgery. A bilateral neck exploration is performed and the abnormal glands are removed if they cannot be located or if the disease is caused by multi-gland disease.   What are the main functions of the parathyroid gland? The parathyroid glands regulate the blood, bones, and rest of the body’s calcium levels. They accomplish this by generating the hormone known as parathyroid hormone, or PTH. The body requires calcium for the following purposes: To supply the nervous system with energy To provide our muscles with energy To make our bones stronger The parathyroid glands will temporarily cease releasing PTH if the body has enough calcium, and they will release more PTH if the calcium levels are too low. Certain issues arise when the parathyroid glands are ill.   Complications with the parathyroid gland There are three main problems that can develop in the parathyroid glands: hyperparathyroidism, hypoparathyroidism and cancer.   Are issues with the parathyroid gland treatable?   Which specialist handles issues with the parathyroid gland? Endocrinologists, surgeons, endocrine surgeons, and ENT surgeons are the specialists who treat issues with the parathyroid gland.

What is male infertility? Male infertility is a medical condition that lowers a man’s chances of conceiving with his partner. The inability to conceive after frequent, unprotected sex is known as infertility. About 15% of couples experience infertility after unprotected sex, with male infertility accounting for 40–50% of these cases. What are the causes of male infertility? The most frequent causes of male infertility are either low sperm production, damaged or low-quality sperm (i.e., unable to move properly, making it difficult to swim to the egg), or abnormal sperm (i.e., sperm with an abnormal shape, making it difficult to swim to the egg). Although the exact cause of sperm damage or depletion is unknown, it is thought to be related to improper temperature regulation, such as testicles that are overheated from wearing tight clothing or from spending extended amounts of time near a heat source, like a laptop. Other factors that may cause male infertility Testicular cancer, infection or damage to the testicles, or decreased sperm production following testicular surgery are additional causes of male infertility. Some men may have trouble ejaculating during intercourse, which makes getting pregnant even more difficult. Low sperm counts are frequently caused by hypogonadism, a condition in which males have abnormally low levels of testosterone. Numerous conditions and other factors can negatively impact a man’s ability to produce sperm, both in terms of quality and quantity. Recreational drug use, excessive drinking and smoking, obesity, and high levels of stress are among the lifestyle choices that are known to result in low sperm counts or abnormal sperm. How can infertility in men be avoided? Since many of the aforementioned causes cannot be prevented, couples who wish to become pregnant may need to look into other options like egg freezing or IVF treatment. Changing one’s lifestyle will also increase the likelihood of creating healthy sperm. In addition to lowering stress levels wherever feasible, quitting smoking, consuming less alcohol, and maintaining a healthy diet will probably have positive effects.

What is hormone therapy? Hormone therapy, sometimes referred to as hormonal therapy, is any form of treatment that uses hormones or, on the other hand, hormone antagonists to reduce the body’s natural production of hormones (also known as antihormone therapy). For treatment, you ought to consult an endocrinologist. Why would you have hormone therapy? There are a number of applications of hormone therapy. Among the most common are: What does hormone therapy involve? Steroids, which can stop some cancers from growing or even kill the cancerous cells, are frequently used in hormone therapy for cancer. Antihormone therapy is one treatment option that may be used to stop the production or activity of hormones that could be promoting the growth of cancer. The type of cancer has a major influence. Here are a few typical examples: HRT is most commonly associated with treating the menopause, but there are actually several varieties: Hormones may be taken in a number of different ways, depending on the case and/or preference. Pills, patches and suppositories are all common methods. Is hormone therapy safe? This question has no straightforward yes-or-no response. Although the side effects of various hormone therapies can vary, the advantages typically exceed the risks. Although early research, including the well-known Women’s Health Initiative (WHI) randomised control trial in 2002, indicated that HRT significantly raised women’s risk of breast cancer, current opinion holds that the increased risk is negligible. Actually, some research suggests that oestrogen therapy improves the patient’s memory and other characteristics. Hot flashes, sweating, fatigue, impotence, breast tenderness, weight gain, and mood swings are all potential side effects of testosterone antagonists used to treat prostate cancer. Hormone therapy may cause nausea, constipation, diarrhea, fatigue, and changes in appetite in women. Menopausal symptoms include mood swings, weight gain, headaches, hair thinning, and changes in bone and muscle. Although side effects typically go away in a few weeks or even months, each case is unique in terms of the side effects that appear and how long they last.

What is the andropause? Andropause, sometimes referred to as the male menopause or testosterone deficiency syndrome (TDS), is characterized by a decrease in testosterone levels in men between the ages of 40 and 55. Decreased sexual ability, changes in attitude and mood, fatigue, loss of energy, sexual desire, and physical agility are some of the changes that may accompany this phenomenon and happen gradually over time.   Symptoms of the andropause: Some of the symptoms of the andropause are: The diagnosis is made on the basis of symptoms and a blood test to determine the level of testosterone.   What are the causes of the andropause? There is still much to learn about the causes of andropause. Nonetheless, a number of factors, including hormone deficiencies, cardiovascular disorders, and genetic factors, are known to play a role.The primary factor, though, is testosterone levels, which decrease as men age.   Is it possible to stop it? It is advised that you have urological testing done once a year and that you eat a balanced diet to prevent gaining weight, which is a contributing factor. To enable optimal metabolic processes, it’s also critical that you avoid alcohol and consume two liters of water daily. Exercise and sports participation are also recommended to keep your heart healthy.   What is the treatment? Restoring testosterone levels can be accomplished orally, through gels applied to various body parts, intramuscular injections, or other means. The patient’s diet, alcohol consumption, and stress levels must also be monitored.

What are thyroid nodules? Thyroid nodules are lumps in the thyroid gland caused by aberrant growths of thyroid tissue and cells. Thyroid hormone, which is released by the thyroid gland in the neck, aids in regulating the body’s metabolism. Thyroid nodules must be assessed in order to treat thyroid cancer in its early stages because most of them are benign (non-cancerous), but some are. What are the symptoms? The majority of thyroid nodules are discovered during routine exams or by CT scans or other comparable imaging tests, and they typically don’t cause any symptoms. While the majority of thyroid nodules do not function, some do, and this leads to hyperthyroidism.If a thyroid nodule is large enough, it may show up as a lump on the neck or cause breathing and swallowing difficulties by obstructing the windpipe. What causes thyroid nodules? The cause of thyroid nodules is not always obvious or well understood. Since iodine is frequently added to salt and other foods, it is rare for certain nodules to be linked to an iodine deficiency. Thyroid nodules are more likely to develop in people with the autoimmune disease Hashimoto’s thyroiditis.Thyroid cysts, goitre, and an overabundance of thyroid tissue can all result in thyroid nodules. The cause of growths and swelling, however, is not always evident. How can they be prevented? It is impossible to avoid thyroid nodules. There are tests that can identify whether a person has a thyroid nodule, but you should always consult a physician before doing so. How are thyroid nodules treated? The course of treatment for thyroid nodules is determined by the nodule’s functioning and whether it is malignant or benign. A thyroid nodule needs to be surgically removed if it is malignant. Generally speaking, thyroid cancer is curable and treatable.If the patient experiences discomfort due to a large thyroid nodule, surgery may also be necessary. If the nodule is actively secreting hormones, it may also be removed. Treatment might not be required if a thyroid nodule is benign; instead, it will be closely watched. Regular physical examinations and thyroid function tests will be conducted to ensure the nodule remains benign. Medication, radioactive iodine therapy, or occasionally surgery can be used to treat thyroid nodule production of thyroid hormones.  

What is thyroiditis? Thyroiditis is a general term for an infection of the thyroid gland; there are different types of thyroiditis that cause inflammation in different ways, and the patient’s course of treatment depends on the type of thyroiditis they have. Hormones produced by the thyroid gland aid in regulating the body’s growth and metabolism. Hashimoto’s thyroiditis, De Quervain’s thyroiditis, postpartum thyroiditis, drug-induced thyroiditis, radiation-induced thyroiditis, infectious thyroiditis, and silent (or painless) thyroiditis are among the various forms of thyroiditis.   What are the symptoms of thyroiditis? The type of thyroiditis that is contracted determines the symptoms. For instance, De Quervain’s thyroiditis can result in fever, as well as jaw, neck, and ear pain. Additionally, the thyroid gland may overproduce thyroid hormone, which can result in hyperthyroidism symptoms like anxiety, palpitations, and insomnia. Postpartum thyroiditis, which affects a very small percentage of women soon after giving birth, also presents with symptoms of an overactive thyroid gland. Acute thyroiditis, drug-induced thyroiditis, radiation-induced thyroiditis, and silent thyroiditis can all present with these symptoms. On the other hand, these thyroiditis types may exhibit signs of an underactive thyroid gland. Symptoms of an overactive thyroid gland include: An underactive thyroid gland produces symptoms including: What causes thyroiditis? Thyroiditis can have a variety of causes because it can take many different forms. The immune system attacking the thyroid gland is the cause of Hashimoto’s thyroiditis. A viral infection, like the flu, is the cause of De Quervain’s thyroiditis. Although it is more common in women with type 1 diabetes, thyroiditis can also strike women who have recently given birth. Thyroiditis can also result from radiation (such as from radiotherapy) and some drugs that affect the thyroid gland. Finally, an infection may be the cause of infectious thyroiditis, also known as acute thyroiditis. How can thyroiditis be prevented? The majority of thyroiditis types cannot be avoided, but taking care of your body and changing your lifestyle can help if you get infected. Exercise frequently, drink sparingly, and quit smoking if you smoke. What is the treatment for thyroiditis? The type of thyroiditis a patient has determines the course of treatment. An autoimmune disease called Hashimoto’s thyroiditis can go undetected for months or even years. Since Hashimoto’s thyroiditis cannot be cured, treatment focuses on symptom relief.Medication that aims to restore normal thyroid function can be used to treat other types of thyroiditis. Ibuprofen and other over-the-counter pain relievers can be used to relieve pain. Low thyroid hormone levels brought on by thyroiditis can occasionally necessitate hormone replacement treatment. Often, this treatment lasts a lifetime. Antibiotics may be used to treat infectious thyroiditis, and surgery is typically required to remove the abnormal thyroid portion in children.To treat thyroiditis, you can see an endocrinologist.

What is hypercalcaemia? A fluid and electrolyte imbalance known as hypercalcaemia occurs when blood calcium levels are higher than normal. Hypercalcaemia is the term used to describe blood calcium levels that are higher than the normal range of 2.1 to 2.6 mmol/L. In most cases, mild cases of hypercalcemia are asymptomatic. However, hypercalcaemia can cause a number of issues, including increased gastrin production, peptic ulcers, heart rhythm abnormalities, and cognitive impairment, in people with a faster onset or higher blood calcium levels. What are the symptoms of hypercalcaemia? Symptoms may vary depending on the cause, but the main signs and symptoms are: What are the causes of hypercalcaemia? Cancer and primary hyperparathyroidism are the most frequent causes of hypercalcaemia. An estimated 90% of cases are thought to be caused by hyperparathyroidism. In addition, vitamin D disorders (including excessive vitamin D and calcium intake), drug-associated and adrenal insufficiency, multiple myeloma and other cancers with metastases, kidney (renal) failure, and other conditions can all lead to hypercalcaemia. Can hypercalcaemia be prevented? The majority of hypercalcemia’s causes are unavoidable. However, if too much calcium in the diet is the cause, there are a number of ways to prevent its onset. Ask your doctor if you should avoid taking calcium and vitamin D supplements, what is the right amount of calcium for you personally, and if you are drinking enough water. What is the treatment for hypercalcaemia? The underlying cause of hypercalcaemia is typically the focus of treatment. For instance, surgery to remove the afflicted parathyroid gland may be necessary if primary hyperparathyroidism is the cause. With lifestyle modifications and calcium intake monitoring, mild cases of hypercalcemia can be managed. However, if the hypercalcemia is severe and causes symptoms, treatment may be necessary, which may involve: • giving intravenous fluids

What is polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS)? A complex hormonal disorder called polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) affects a woman’s ovaries because of an imbalance in reproductive hormones.The ovaries produce aberrant androgens (male sex hormones) as a result of PCOS. The ovaries, which release eggs for fertilization, are controlled by hormones. Follicles, or sacs, are where these eggs develop. The eggs will stay in the follicle and may develop into cysts if the hormones that cause the release of the eggs from the follicles are not present in the proper amounts. The cysts that can develop on the ovaries are the source of the term PCOS. Contrary to what its name suggests, women with PCOS do not necessarily develop cysts.    Who is susceptible to PCOS? Women of all races and ethnicities who are of childbearing age can develop PCOS.Symptoms may manifest after significant weight gain or when a woman begins menstruating during puberty. How common is PCOS? It’s unclear how many people actually have PCOS. Since they don’t exhibit any symptoms, many women with PCOS are actually ignorant of their illness. In the UK, it is estimated that 10% of women are affected. What causes PCOS? This condition’s precise cause is unknown. Numerous factors are thought to be involved, including: What are the symptoms of PCOS? Symptoms of PCOS may include:  Can fertility be impacted by PCOS? Although it is treatable, PCOS is one of the main causes of infertility in women. Until they have trouble getting pregnant, people frequently aren’t aware that they have PCOS.Because the cysts disrupt ovulation and prevent an egg from being released for fertilization, about 70–80% of people with PCOS will have difficulty becoming pregnant. Can PCOS affect pregnancy? Infertility is not always a result of PCOS. Although it might be more difficult, you can still become pregnant.A person with PCOS is more likely to experience pregnancy complications, including miscarriage, an early birth, gestational diabetes, or pregnancy-induced hypertension. When giving birth, women with PCOS are more likely to require a cesarean section. What other complications can PCOS lead to? People with PCOS can develop serious health problems, such as:  When should you consult a doctor about PCOS? You should consult a doctor if any of the symptoms listed above—such as irregular periods, excessive hair, acne, or weight gain—are degrading your quality of life.You should also see your doctor if, after a year of trying, you are still having trouble getting pregnant. How is PCOS diagnosed? An early diagnosis can lower the risk of long-term complications, even though there isn’t a single test that can identify PCOS.After taking a thorough medical history, a doctor will concentrate on symptoms. A variety of physical examinations, including a pelvic exam, will be performed to look for any unusual growths on the uterus or ovaries. Blood tests may also be carried out to measure insulin, cholesterol, and hormone levels. To check for ovarian cysts, an ultrasound may also be utilized. You may be diagnosed with PCOS if you exhibit at least two of the three primary symptoms: polycystic ovaries, excess androgen, and irregular periods. For specialized care, you might be referred to an endocrinologist. How is PCOS treated medically? A number of variables, including your age, the intensity of your symptoms, your general health, and whether or not you are attempting to conceive, affect how you treat PCOS.Although lifestyle modifications are the mainstay of PCOS treatment, the following drugs may also be helpful: Can PCOS be treated with surgery? Surgery might be considered if medication and lifestyle modifications prove ineffective. Laparoscopic ovarian drilling (LOD) is a technique that eliminates the ovarian tissue that produces androgens by using heat or a laser. Is it possible to cure PCOS? Although PCOS cannot be cured, its symptoms can be controlled and its risks decreased with treatment.When a woman goes through menopause, PCOS may disappear, but for some women, the hormonal imbalance persists as they age. How is PCOS managed? It is advised to see a doctor on a regular basis to get tested for any potential conditions that might arise from PCOS.Maintaining a healthy lifestyle can help someone with PCOS feel less irritated. Symptoms can be lessened with a nutritious diet and 30 minutes of exercise three times a week.Additionally, people can get cosmetic procedures like laser hair removal to boost their confidence if they are experiencing low self-esteem, possibly as a result of weight gain, excessive body hair, or acne.Acupuncture may alleviate symptoms, according to some studies, although the findings are conflicting.

Hormone replacement therapy is usually the first step taken by transgender people who decide to medically transition, though this is not always the case. Their bodies will begin to change as they acquire the secondary sexual characteristics of their desired gender appearance by taking supplements and hormonal replacements, which will ultimately lessen their gender dysphoria. An essential component of gender-affirming care is endocrinological intervention. Since transgender endocrinology is more complicated than trans men needing testosterone and trans women needing oestrogen, endocrinologists who specialize in transgender care manage the hormonal transition of transgender patients. Instead, hormone prescriptions must be carefully planned based on the patient’s body, health conditions, ideal timeline, and goal. Primary care teams in the UK won’t start hormone therapy unless gender-approved. Does a transgender patient need to see a skilled endocrinologist before starting hormone therapy? Their system may be severely disrupted by gender-affirming hormone therapy (GAHT), which may have long-term effects.Endocrinologists with expertise in transgender care can help patients with their GAHT by advising, guiding, and planning it according to their needs while carefully managing risks and taking into account any physical health concerns they may have. In order for the endocrinologist to create a safe treatment plan that the patient can accept, a patient should have a psychosocial assessment, mental health evaluation, a thorough review of their medical history, a physical examination if necessary, and blood testing before starting GAHT. Hormone therapy can help some transgender and nonbinary people who are experiencing distress and gender dysphoria. It can enhance their social and mental health. What impact do hormones have on gender-affirming care? There are numerous ways to administer hormones, including: Feminising hormone therapy The goal of feminine hormone therapy is to increase the amount of oestrogen and decrease the amount of testosterone in the body. This is usually accomplished by giving anti-androgen prescriptions and the medication oestradiol. Feminizing traits like breast development and reduced facial hair growth will become noticeable when there is an adequate amount of oestrogen and testosterone suppression. Before receiving feminizing hormone therapy, patients who hope to have biological children in the future might want to think about freezing their sperm because this will cause the male sexual organs, like Masculinising hormone therapy The goal of masculinizing hormone therapy is to raise the body’s testosterone levels. Similar to feminizing hormones, this will stop the menstrual cycle and prevent the ovaries from producing oestrogen, which may also result in infertility. Therefore, patients who want to have biological children in the future might want to think about freezing their eggs before undergoing masculinizing hormone therapy. Additional modifications will include: The patient and their endocrinologist should have a full discussion before deciding to undergo a hormonal transition. Some of the changes, like breast development, are permanent, but the hormones can be stopped at any time, and some of the changes will return to their pre-hormone therapy states.

What is a phaeochromocytoma? The medical term for a tumor of the adrenal glands, which are situated above your kidneys, is phaeochromocytoma. Although it most frequently affects adults, it can also develop in children. Phaeochromocytomas are usually not cancerous, but they can be in about 1 in 10 cases.   What signs and symptoms indicate a phaeochromocytoma? An elevated heart rate, palpitations, and high blood pressure can result from the adrenal glands producing too much adrenaline when a phaeochromocytoma develops. The symptoms can last anywhere from a few minutes to an hour and are usually unpredictable, manifesting as unplanned “attacks.” As the tumor enlarges, they typically become more frequent and obvious. The following are the primary signs of a phaeochromocytoma: In addition, some patients experience: It’s possible that some people never exhibit symptoms, and the condition is only identified after testing for another illness. It may take years for symptoms to appear. What causes a phaeochromocytoma? Although the exact cause of phaeochromocytomas is unknown, they are believed to be connected to a number of hereditary disorders, including: Your doctor will probably want to test for one of these hereditary disorders if you have been diagnosed with phaeochromocytoma. How is a phaeochromocytoma diagnosed? Phaeochromocytoma patients may not always exhibit symptoms, or if they do, the symptoms may be too general to identify. Usually, it is discovered following tests and scans for additional issues. If one is discovered, you might need to have additional blood, urine, and a CT or MRI scan. What kind of specialist handles phaeochromocytomas? Phaeochromocytoma can be diagnosed and treated by endocrinologists.   How is phaeochromocytoma treated? An adrenalectomy, a type of surgery that removes both the tumor and the adrenal gland, is the usual course of treatment. It will also be necessary to remove any surrounding tissues if the cancer has spread there. To counteract the effects of excess hormones, you will be prescribed beta-blockers or alpha-blockers prior to surgery. Additionally, this will stabilize your blood pressure and heart rate.Both open and keyhole (minimum access) surgery are options for the surgical procedure, which is carried out under general anesthesia. Keyhole surgery The tumor and gland are removed by making tiny incisions in your stomach and inserting tiny instruments. Open surgery To reach the gland and remove the tumor, a single, large incision is made in your stomach.After surgery, you might require chemotherapy or radiation therapy if your phaeochromocytoma is malignant. What is recovery like? To make sure you fully recover from the anesthesia, you will need to spend a few hours in the recovery room following the procedure. The physician or nurse will give you pain medication if you require it. Recovery from keyhole surgery is quicker (about 1-2 weeks), but recovery from open surgery can take up to 6 weeks.