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What is continuous glucose monitoring (CGMs)? People with type 1 diabetes can check their blood sugar (glucose) levels at any time by using a continuous glucose monitor, a small device. In addition to sending an alert if the glucose level is too high or low, it enables diabetics to monitor patterns and trends in their levels. What is a continuous glucose monitor? It can be worn just beneath the skin. The CGM measures the amount of glucose in the fluid (interstitial fluid) that surrounds the body cells rather than the blood glucose levels. The CGM result isn’t always precisely the same as a finger prick result because there is a slight delay when the fluid is checked. What kinds of continuous glucose monitors are there? CGMs come in two varieties: How does continuous glucose monitoring work? There are three parts to a CGM. A sensor sits underneath the skin and measures the sugar levels. There is a transmitter that is attached to the sensor, which sends the levels to the display on the device. The third part of the CGM is the display device that shows the sugar levels and is usually a separate handheld device or a pump. CGM also comes with software so that the patient can analyse their results and monitor patterns in their levels. The device is worn for up to seven days and then needs to be replaced and the new sensor is reattached to the transmitter. 

What is the pituitary? Several hormones are produced by the pituitary, a gland in the head. These hormones function as “slow-acting messengers” that are transported throughout the body by the bloodstream and aid in controlling the rest of the body. The pituitary is situated directly beneath the brain and behind the eyes. The optic nerve, which converts light entering your eyes into brain signals that enable vision, may be pushed if it grows. What is a pituitary tumour? An aberrant growth of the pituitary gland is called a pituitary tumor, or adenoma. Since the tumor is typically benign (not cancerous), it will typically grow slowly and not spread to other parts of the body. Depending on whether the tumor interferes with your hormone production, pituitary tumors can be of several types: All forms of pituitary tumors have the potential to press on the optic nerve and impair vision, but non-secreting tumors do not produce hormonal symptoms. A pituitary tumor can harm pituitary tissue and lead to hormone insufficiency if it gets big enough. How are pituitary tumours diagnosed? Several tests may be used to diagnose pituitary tumors, including: Why do pituitary tumors occur? Pituitary tumors have no known cause. Some people have a family history of pituitary tumor growth. Scientists are now investigating the possibility that a genetic mutation is the cause of tumors. What is the treatment for pituitary tumors? Surgery is typically used to remove pituitary tumors. Usually, this entails going through the nose to the region where the pituitary gland is located. In addition to correcting or preventing additional hormone imbalances, removing the tumor will also prevent any damage to the eyes that may result from the tumor pressing on the optic nerve. The risks of surgery include: If the pituitary tumor is located away from the optic nerve, radiotherapy may be used to treat it. If surgery was unable to remove the tumor, this might also be a necessary treatment. Lastly, if the tumor has permanently damaged your pituitary gland, you may be prescribed medication to control your hormone production either in the short term while you wait for surgery or in the long term. Which specialist handles pituitary tumors? Typically, a multidisciplinary team consisting of an:

What is an endocrine test? An endocrine test is a procedure used to identify or rule out issues with different body parts and organs. Diagnostic tests are used by endocrinologists for a number of reasons: An Numerous specialties and hormonal disorders can be diagnosed with the aid of an endocrine test, such as: Carcinoid tumors, which are neuroendocrine tumors that grow slowly, and reproductive endocrinology What is it made of? The following are a few examples of diagnostic tests: What is the purpose of endocrine testing? Numerous physiological aspects, such as secondary sexual characteristics, fertility, growth, metabolism, and sleep, are influenced by hormones. Therefore, it’s frequently crucial to make sure the hormones are working correctly.Endocrine tests are performed for a variety of reasons, from gynecomastia to feeling weak, drained, or exhausted. Depending on the particular gland in question, the symptoms of an endocrine disorder can vary greatly. An endocrine test can detect endocrine conditions like: How can one get ready for an endocrine test? Patients are advised to fast for an extended period of time, though this will depend on the test. Other factors to think about are:  What can one anticipate from an endocrine test? It will depend on the test. In many cases, urine and blood tests are used to check your hormone levels, while in some cases, imaging tests are done to pinpoint or locate a tumor or other abnormalities that may be affecting the endocrine glands.  Because a shift in one hormone level can cause another to fluctuate, treating endocrine disorders is frequently challenging. To look for problems or to see if your medication or treatment plan needs to be changed, your doctor might prescribe routine blood work. What does it mean to have abnormal results? The way abnormal results are read will depend on the testing method used. However, an endocrine test can often uncover some of the following conditions: What are the most recent advancements in endocrine testing? At-home endocrine tests have grown in popularity in recent years.

What is hyperprolactinaemia? A disorder known as hyperprolactinemia is brought on by unusually high blood levels of prolactin. A gland near the base of the cranium produces the hormone prolactin. It is in charge of a woman’s breast development during adolescence (in conjunction with estrogen) and milk production during pregnancy (galactorrhea). It is linked to impotence, gynecomastia, and sexual desire in men. Its ability to mobilize fatty acids and reduce testosterone levels is one of its activities. What is the outlook for hyperprolactinaemia? The prognosis of hyperprolactinaemia is often individualized and depends on the cause, age and overall health. What are the symptoms of hyperprolactinaemia? A change in the menstrual cycle is one of the most prevalent signs of hyperprolactinemia in women. Why does hyperprolactinemia occur? To determine the amount of prolactin in your blood, a blood test will be required. If prolactin levels are high, a CT scan will be performed to check for microadenomas or adenomas in the pituitary gland or surrounding tissue. The scan will specifically look at the pituitary gland and hypothalamus. You might have vision problems if there is a tumor mass in the optic chiasma. If so, you ought to conduct a visual field test. What causes hyperprolactinaemia? There are several causes of hyperprolactinemia. Additional reasons for hyperprolactinemia include:  Pharmacological causes or drug-induced hyperprolactinaemia:  Other causes of hyperprolactinaemia include: How does one treat hyperprolactinemia? There is no special treatment needed for asymptomatic hyperprolactinemia. In other situations, the cause of hyperprolactinemia will determine how it is treated. Which medical professional handles hyperprolactinemia? You should consult an endocrinologist for a precise diagnosis and treatment of hyperprolactinemia.

What is hyperandrogenism? Hyperandrogenism is the abnormal presence of the male sex hormones testosterone, androsterone and androstenedione in females, and the effect that they produce on the female body. What are the symptoms of hyperandrogenism? Excessive production of testosterone within the female organism can lead to the following masculine features:• Greasy skin (seborrhoea)• Acne• Thick facial hair growth (hirsutism) – on the beard and moustache area particularly, limbs, underarm and pubic area• Deepening voice• Masculine hair loss• Abnormal menstruation• More muscular build and diminished breast size• Infertility • Obesity What are the causes of hyperandrogenism? The primary causes of the disorder are: How is hyperandrogenism diagnosed? To see if a woman has hyperandrogenism, blood tests are done to test various hormones. This involves testing the thyroid function and searching for the follicle stimulating hormone, the sex hormone binding globulin and for testosterone, among others. There could also be a pelvic ultrasound scan to test for ovarian cysts. Can hyperandrogenism be prevented? There is no sure method to avoid hyperandrogenism but a healthy lifestyle in terms of food and exercise should be followed. It is also advisable to keep a normal weight and to ensure that glucose, lipid levels and blood pressure are within normal ranges to avoid any future complications. What is the treatment of hyperandrogenism? Hyperandrogenism is treated by administering hormone therapy. Treatment for the patients that experience acne involves creams applied topically, oral antibiotics like tetracycline, antiandrogens (hormone therapy, such as birth control pill) and oral isotretinoin. The patients with the condition can also modify their dietary habits in an attempt to shed excess weight.

What is the hypothalamus? The hypothalamus is a small part of the brain located at the bottom of the brain, near the pituitary gland. Despite its small size, it is extremely important and has a key role in controlling many cycles in the body. The hypothalamus consists of three parts:1. Anterior region – consists of several nuclei which are primarily responsible for hormone secretion, frequently interacting with the pituitary gland.2. Middle region – regulated appetite and triggered growth hormone production for body growth.3. Posterior region – regulated body temperature by inducing shivering and regulating sweat secretion. What does the hypothalamus do? The hypothalamus maintains some functions:• Controlling body temperature, heart rate, thirst, hunger, sleep patterns and blood pressure (homeostasis).• Releasing some of the hormones which stimulate other hormones to be released throughout the body. What are some of the common conditions affecting the hypothalamus? Should the hypothalamus not work correctly, then this is known as hypothalamic dysfunction. This may result from:• head injuries• congenital abnormalities• brain surgery• tumours• eating disorders• genetic disordersA condition caused by hypothalamic dysfunction is Prader-Willi syndrome, which is hereditary and caused by a hypothalamus that cannot recognize one as being full after food consumption. Thus, there is a persistent hunger and urge to eat. Individuals who have this syndrome have lower metabolisms and usually learning disabilities. What are symptoms of conditions with the hypothalamus? Symptoms showing hypothalamic dysfunction are:• appetite changes• weight loss or gain• sleeping difficulty• dehydration• frequent urination• body temperature fluctuations• height or low blood pressure• puberty delay What can I do to have a healthy hypothalamus? In order to have a healthy hypothalamus, it is essential to sleep well, exercise regularly and eat a balanced diet.

The thyroid gland is an endocrine gland that is found in the front of the neck, just below the Adam’s apple. The thyroid is roughly butterfly-shaped, and is tasked with making hormones all over your body. The thyroid’s hormones assist in regulating things like the burning of calories in your body, the rate of your body’s metabolism, and controls the body’s growth from birth to old age. Diseases that can affect the thyroid There are several diseases and disorders that may impact the thyroid, which tend to lead either to producing excess or deficient amounts of hormones the body requires, which then create other issues elsewhere. Some of the problems that may occur to the thyroid are: Hyperthyroidism Otherwise referred to as overactive thyroid, the condition is when the thyroid gland secretes excessive amounts of the thyroid hormone. Too much of the hormone may cause numerous issues, including changes in mood, anxiety, tiredness and heart palpitations among others. Hypothyroidism The reverse of hyperthyroidism, hypothyroidism occurs when insufficient of the thyroid hormone is being made, and the symptoms are constipation, coldness and tiredness, and lack of concentration. If one is experiencing hypothyroidism at an early age, it can result in growth issues, delayed puberty, and irregular menstrual periods. Goitre This is the word used for an enlarged thyroid, and is linked with an improperly functioning thyroid. It has the potential to bring about coughing, difficulty swallowing and even shortness of breath in certain cases. Thyroid cancer Thyroid lumps are more troubling in the extremes of age. Thyroid cancer is more prevalent in smokers and those with a family history of thyroid cancer, although it may occur in anyone. Thyroiditis This is the generic term for an inflamed thyroid. It can be used to describe a variety of conditions including Hashimoto’s thyroiditis, Postpartum thyroiditis, and Subacute thyroiditis. All of these conditions occur in different age groups, and with different types of symptoms, though the shared symptom is swelling of the thyroid gland. How are thyroid problems treated? Treatment of a thyroid condition depends on the nature of the condition. Some can be treated with medication, while others can be treated with surgery. Medication can be used to restore the hormone levels secreted by the thyroid gland, like to produce more hormone in the event of hypothyroidism, or to limit the amount of hormone secreted with hyperthyroidism. If surgery is needed, it will normally be to take out part of the gland, or to take out part of the swelling or goitre. The operation to treat patients with thyroid cancer is good, with most patients recovering completely if the cancer is discovered early.

What is diabetes? Diabetes mellitus (DM) or simply diabetes, is a group of metabolic conditions which lead to a loss of control of blood sugar. An excess of glucose in your bloodstream can damage your kidneys, eyes, nerves and other tissues in the body, including even your blood vessels themselves. Diabetics may end up getting heart disease and stroke in worst case scenarios, and in extreme circumstances, the limbs have to be amputated.This loss of control over blood sugar results from an issue with the hormone insulin. Insulin is manufactured in the pancreas, is released into the bloodstream, and carries glucose from the blood into cells, where it is used to produce energy.There are two kinds of diabetes: What are the symptoms? Classic symptoms of diabetes are:• Thirst• Increased urine output• Fatigue• Itching in the genitals, or thrush.• Weight loss/muscle loss• Blurred vision• Poor healing• Vascular complications, such as diabetic foot.• Diabetic neuropathy• Diabetic nephropathy• Diabetic retinopathy What causes diabetes? Type 1 diabetes is an autoimmune disorder – something triggers the immune system to destroy healthy pancreatic cells that secrete insulin. It seems to be hereditary, so is possibly genetic. Nobody is entirely sure why the immune system is triggered to attack the pancreas, but it is thought by some that a virus triggers this. Rarely, neonatal diabetes occurs at birth and typically is diagnosed within the first nine months of life.Type 2 diabetes is contracted, and typically occurs in older individuals. It is usually linked with obesity and physical inactivity. How can it be prevented? Type 1 diabetes is genetically determined, therefore it is not possible to avoid it. If you are aiming to minimize your chances of acquiring type 2 diabetes, be sure to maintain a balanced diet, exercise hard, and become thinner if you are overweight or obese. Abstaining from smoking and enjoying alcohol in limited amounts are other helpful hints.   What is the treatment? Type 1 diabetes sufferers need to have regular injections of insulin throughout their lives to compensate for the absence of insulin production by the pancreas. Type 2 diabetes sufferers will ultimately need to take tablets, since the disease is progressive (it will get worse over time).Complications, including diabetic foot, may occasionally be managed with vascular and microsurgery. You must visit your doctor or specialist as soon as possible if you have symptoms. If diagnosed with diabetes, a patient is typically referred to a specialist care team for treatment and ongoing monitoring of the condition. What’s the difference between type 1 and type 2 diabetes? Type 1 and type 2 diabetes share numerous differences, as well as common things. The most significant difference is that type 1 diabetes is a genetic disease that tends to occur early in life, whereas type 2 is lifestyle-related.Both types have distinct modes of management, symptoms and risk factors and prevention. The common things are mostly symptoms, which are:• Being extremely thirsty• Increased toilet use, particularly during the night• Tiredness and fatigue• Unintended weight loss• Thrush and genital itching• Wounds and cuts taking longer to heal• Swollen visionBut type 1 symptoms develop very fast, and type 2 diabetes symptoms may take longer to develop, so it complicates things and makes it difficult to distinguish symptoms. In some cases, individuals may have diabetes for as much as 10 years without even realizing. It’s also necessary that individuals with both type 1 and type 2 diabetes control their conditions through a healthy life. Some type 2 diabetes patients need insulin treatment, but type 1 diabetics need to take insulin in order to balance their blood sugar level. What are the complications of diabetes? The harm that diabetes causes to your body are referred to as diabetes complications. The severe complications can be classified into two categories; chronic complications and acute ones. They describe them in more detail after our list of symptoms above. Chronic complications • Eye issuesDiabetic retinopathy is something that some individuals with diabetes may catch.• Foot issuesAmputation of diabetic foot issues is a sad reality if left uncured. High blood sugar levels can impair circulation, so sores and cuts heal slowly. In addition, sensation in your feet can be impacted by nerve damage.• Cardiology complicationsHigh blood sugar for an extended period of time may harm your blood vessels, and occasionally this will lead to heart attacks and strokes. Acute complications     What is the incidence of diabetes in the UK?  Diabetes UK reports that: “type 1 affects 8% of everyone with diabetes. While type 2 diabetes affects about 90%”In the context of individuals who are diagnosed with diabetes and have the condition, there were almost 4 million individuals in the UK in 2019, and it is estimated that 5.3 million will live with the condition by 2025 Is there a cure for diabetes? Diabetes can’t be cured, but it can be controlled. A normal diet, regular exercise, and frequent blood tests are necessary to maintain blood glucose levels under control. Which doctor treats diabetes? Endocrinologists treat diabetes.

What is hormone replacement therapy? Hormone replacement therapy, or HRT, is one form of therapy where the individual or patient takes hormones, as a replacement of naturally occurring hormones, or in place of deficiency thereof. HRT is widely applied at the time of menopause, as androgen replacement therapy, and also in transsexual individuals. Why is hormone replacement therapy employed? In treatment of transgender individuals, HRT is implemented in an attempt to introduce the hormone related to the gender to which the subject identifies. It assists their secondary sex features (e.g pubic hair, Adam’s apple, facial hair, large breasts in females) to be compliant with the identified gender. In transgender males, testosterone is utilised to stop feminising traits, whereas in transgender females, oestrogen is utilised to prevent masculinising features. What does hormone replacement therapy involve? Hormone replacement therapy is in the form of drugs, which have to be prescribed by a competent physician. Hormone therapy is deemed safe but needs to be monitored by a physician. Seeking advice from a physician before initiating therapy sets both eligibility and preparedness. Each patient is unique, and your physician will be willing to answer to you and your unique circumstances How do you prepare for hormone replacement therapy? Prior to going through HRT, a person should make an initial appointment with a doctor. They will be able to guide and refer the person in the proper way. Hormone replacement therapy is often the initial type of treatment that transgender individuals go through in their process, and some discover that they do not require any additional treatment since the hormonal adjustments are sufficient. How is hormone replacement therapy administered? HRT is usually taken as a medication, and is most commonly given orally. It can, however, be given in the form of an injection, patch, or gel. Changes will often occur more slowly than anticipated, which may be disappointing for the person undergoing treatment. If HRT is successful, it will be taken throughout one’s life. Does hormone replacement therapy pose any risks? All medication has the potential for side effects, but not everyone will respond in the same manner. Most people have no side effects at all, particularly if their overall health is good. Your doctor will assist in monitoring your health and keeping track of your progress, by having regular blood tests, and potentially bone scans.

What is a simple goitre? A simple goitre is an enlargement of the thyroid gland, with no thyroid malfunction or thyroid cancer evident. The majority of goitres are non-cancerous and goitres are not tumours. The thyroid gland is situated at the front of the neck where the collarbones intersect. It is a significant gland within the endocrine system, as it produces the hormones which regulate many functions in our bodies.   How is a simple goitre caused? Goitres are usually caused by iodine deficiency. Iodine is essential in the creation of hormones by way of the thyroid. Therefore, if one does not have sufficient iodine in their body, the thyroid grows larger as it attempts to obtain more iodine. An infection, a response to the immune system destroying the thyroid, smoking, and certain foods and medications are also causatives of a goitre. Goitres occur more frequently in individuals with a history of goitres in their families, individuals older than 40, and females. What are the symptoms of a simple goitre? The principal symptom of a goitre is an enlarged thyroid gland, but this can be any size, from appearing as a small mark or nodule to being a large swelling. Very occasionally, a goitre can press against the trachea (windpipe) and oesophagus, which can lead to breathing difficulties, a cough, and swallowing difficulties. What is the treatment? The majority of goitres are not causing any medical issues, therefore, they do not require treatment.But if they are showing symptoms, and impair quality of life due to compression of the trachea, then treatment could be indicated. A goitre can be treated in a variety of ways, including:• Thyroid hormone replacement tablets• Iodine solution• Iodine doses to shrink the gland• Surgery to have the gland, or part of it, removed  How can goitres be prevented? Goitres usually cannot be prevented, although because sometimes they are associated with iodine deficiency, you should ensure you obtain enough in your diet. Much of the salt we have is iodised, that is, iodine has been added to it. It should be controlled however how much salt is taken. Seaweed or seafood like shellfish is other means of obtaining sufficient iodine. An excessive amount of iodine can also lead to a goitre being developed, so take care of how much you eat.